The present article discusses socio-cultural Lithuanization of soldiers in Kaunas Garrison in 1919–1940. It focuses on teaching the Lithuanian language, Lithuanian history and geography in the army units as well as the cultural events which were organised in Kaunas Garrison (e.g. lectures, festivals, etc.) to promote Lithuanian national culture. In the Lithuanian army units in Kaunas, the Lithuanian language, history and geography were started to be taught systematically since 1920 when the first education programmes for soldiers were prepared. The army units reached sufficiently good results of the Lithuanian language. For instance, from the recruits who came to the 2nd and 5th infantry, 1st hussar and 3rd artillery regiments, there were only 6,7%, 8,9%, 2,4%, and 4% of analphabets, respectively. After finishing the education course for soldiers, there were only five analphabets (1,8%) in the infantry regiment. Reading various nationally-oriented sources and books written by Lithuanian authors (there were small libraries in the army units) as well as learning Lithuanian-centered history and geography of the country, soldiers got introduced with the national Lithuanian culture and underwent certain influences of socio-cultural Lithuanization. Various cultural events organized in Kaunas Garrison also had influence on soldiers’ socio-cultural Lithuanization. They had lectures on the history of Lithuanian national movement and ethno-cultural features of the Lithuanian nation; state and national festivals (February 16, September 8, etc.) were celebrated. Their celebration included much cultural national symbolism (e.g. singing the state anthem). Soldiers’ visits to the War Museum, which combined the motives of nationalism and struggle for independence, also had socio-cultural influence of Lithuanization.

The article analyses the functioning of cheap social housing in the third and the fourth decades of the 20th century in Kaunas. Due to the “apartment crisis” in Kaunas, which took place in the third decade of the 20th century, a number of lower class citizens were unable to find accommodation. The first cheap blocks of flats for the exiles were built in 1921. By 1936, the number increased to six buildings in Kaunas and its suburbs, specifically, in Žaliakalnis (in the former barracks) and in the Second and the Third Forts. The inhabitants of the cheap social housing were Kaunas citizens living under poor conditions (with the status of “the propertyless”). They had to pay a fixed mon thly rent, which varied depending on the size of the apartment. Inhabitants could be evicted from the apartments in case of severe house rule violation or big debts. Appointed supervisors were responsible for the house order, whereas the common premises and the yard were managed by the inhabitants. The living conditions in the blocks of flats were poor: they were small, dirty and damp, and without conveniences. The majority of inhabitants were women and children. The public opinion of those times with respect to the social housing was largely negative. The dwellers were stereotyped as idlers, thieves and reprobates. It was assumed that the environment of these cheap flats was particularly harmful for the socialization of their inhabitants (especially the youth). Due to the anti-sanitary conditions and damage situation, the cheap blocks of flats were destroyed in 1933. The former inhabitants were divided into two groups. The first group was given allowances for private flat rent, whereas the second group (living under extremely poor conditions) was accommodated in the two reformed blocks of flats, referred to as family housing.

This article analyzes the evolution of street infrastructure in Kaunas during the 1920s and 1930s. It examines this topic in the context of urban evolution, with an emphasis on the urban development processes. The author describes the main streets that were built and paved in Kaunas during this period and discusses street paving methods and the organization of paving labor. The article provides statistical information on the volume and dynamics of street paving, as well as on the main trends of street infrastructure development. It also introduces the main problems of street infrastructure during that time period. During the period of the first Republic of Lithuania (1918–1940), Kaunas experienced a significant urban transformation. The city’s territory grew sevenfold. The annexed regions were not urbanized and had hardly any street infrastructure. Therefore, their integration into the urban whole of the city was a long-term process that required many financial resources and was still not finished at the end of the 1930s. In the beginning of the 1920s, several streets in Kaunas were still paved with simple stones; the former fortress roads were covered with macadam; and sidewalks were made of wood. Until 1927, proprietors of premises in the city of Kaunas had to perform yearly repairs of street paving. In 1927, responsibility for paving the streets of Kaunas was given to the municipality. As a result, street paving labor quality improved, modern materials (stone setts, bitumen, silicate bricks, asphalt and others) began to be used, and the extent of paving activities increased. At the end of the 1930s, about 50 % of the total street network was paved in the city and pavements made of cement bricks began to replace wooden sidewalks. However, most of the streets still remained paved with simple field stones.

The article analyses national and civil education of pupils at women’s teachers’ colleges administered by Saulės Society and Cultural Society of Lithuanian Women (since 1932, Congregation of Sister Servants of the Most Sacred Heart of Jesus), which operated in Kaunas in 1918–1936. The analysis has revealed that most attention in the programme of study for history (Lithuanian history) was paid to the history of Grand Duchy of Lithuania (13th–16th century), while the period of the second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century (Lithuanian national revival) was mainly covered in the Lithuanian Language and Literature classes. Society and State Science provided the basic knowledge on the theory of economy, Lithuanian law history and the Constitution of Lithuania. Local lore studies focused on a complex introduction to the living area (the study of objects, environmental science, local lore, and earth science). Both teachers and pupils of the colleges contributed to the preparation of state festivals and various commemorations of anniversaries organized at the women’s teachers’ colleges. The teachers would give lectures on a particular occasion, and the pupils would read poetry, play musical instruments, and perform plays related to the celebration. National and civil education of the pupils of teachers’ colleges was implemented by participating in various youth organizations (the Lithuanian Catholic Federation “Ateitis,” Vilnius Liberation Union, Lithuanian Scouts Association, Sodality of the Blessed Virgin Mary, etc.). Since 1930, the pupils of the colleges could officially participate only in scout activities.

The article analyses the processes of sociocultural Lithuanization (becoming Lithuanians). The dissemination of the Lithuanian language and culture was a typical feature of these processes in Kaunas city primary schools in 1918–1940. The research has revealed that in 1918–1940 the composition of classes changed in Kaunas primary schools according to the language of instruction. The number of classes taught in Lithuanian increased drastically from 6 (13,98 %) in 1918 to 197 (62,54 %) in 1938. The number of classes where the language of instruction was Polish decreased from 25 (58,14 %) in 1918 to 5 (1,59 %) in 1938. From the beginning of the 1930s, a part of Kaunas primary classes where the languages of instruction were Polish and German were reformed to the classes where the language of instruction was Lithuanian, and the Polish and the German languages were elective courses. Most teachers of Kaunas city primary schools adapted to the new requirements of the state education system, i.e. teaching in Lithuanian (the state language) and disseminating the Lithuanian national culture. In 1925, “Law Amendment of Primary Schools” was passed, which regulated an obligatory test of the Lithuanian language for primary school teachers. Until 1940, the older generation of teachers in Kaunas city primary schools learned Lithuanian, while the younger generation of teachers, who finished the institutions of teacher preparation in Lithuania, knew Lithuanian sufficiently well. The dissemination of sociocultural Lithuanization (becoming Lithuanians) in Kaunas city primary schools was especially typical of the subjects of the Lithuanian language, history, geography, and environment and homeland cognition. During the Lithuanian language lessons, pupils acquired the main skills of the state language, such as reading, writing, or speaking (non-Lithuanian pupils), and were introduced to the Lithuanian folklore, literature, etc. [...]