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KAUNO ISTORIJOS
METRAŠTIS Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas |
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KAUNO ISTORIJOS
METRAŠTIS Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas |
ABSTRACTS
Algirdas Žalnierius
The First Kaunas Castle
Abstract
The first Kaunas castle was one of the four castellum-type
castles built on the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the middle
of the XIVth century. It was situated on the left coast of the Neris, approximately
6,000 metres to the north-east from the confluence of the Nemunas and the
Neris, in a neglected archaic settlement (pic.1). According to the findings,
the settlement dates back to the Xth - XIIth century (pic. 2). By the end
of the XIXth century the Neris had washed away the main part of the castle
(pic. 3).
The defensive complex of the castle, the size of about 4 hectares, consisted
of a trapezium stone castle with the walls of 12 metres high and 2.5 metres
thick, the defensive ditches in the eastern and southern parts, defensive
fortifications at the bottom of the defensive ditch and two brick towers (pics.
3, 11-13). The walls of the castle were made of stone (pics. 4-5), whereas
the shooting gallery, gates and most probably the top of the walls and the
decoration band on the external walls were made of brick. The area of the
castle yard was 5200 m2 . The investigation shows that the construction of
all planned fortifications had not been finished until the attack on the castle
in 1362 (pic. 10). It is estimated that for the building of the castle about
16,000 m3 of building materials was utilised. From the defensive ditch about
70,000 m3 of gravel must have been dug out. In the yard of the castle there
were wooden houses and outbuildings (pic. 6).
During the period of research very few artifacts were found, and these include
pots decorated with stamped ornaments (pics. 7,8). The main body of findings
consists of a crossbow, an arch and balista arrow-heads lost during the attack
in 1362.
The real possibilities and conditions for building the first Kaunas castle
were already existant at the end of Gediminas' rule. However, the necessity
of doing this in practice arose after the Strėva battle in 1348 due to the
fact that the march of the Order of Crusaders was the first real menace to
Vilnius, the capital of the Great Duchy of Lithuania. The spade work of building
the first Kaunas castle started in 1359-1360, the construction was started
in 1361 but it had not been finished until the spring of 1362.
Vitalija Kasperavičiūtė
The School of Jesuits and the Educational Commission in Kaunas: Interaction
and Continuity (18th c.)
Abstract
The 18th century is marked by the dissemination of the new
ideas of the Age of Enlightenment in Western Europe, the process which had
influenced the life of the Polish-Lithuanian Republic. In the 17th - 18th
c., Jesuit schools also tried to reform their teaching programs. Parish and
secondary schools (colleges) began to spring up at the turn of the Reformation
and Counter-Reformation; Vilnius University was established in 1579.
Pope Clemens XIV abolished the Order of Jesuits on the 21st of July, 1773.
The newly founded Educational Commission was trying to change the system of
education and teaching programs. New books for schools were published, and
the Commission organized the training of a new generation of teachers.
The educational system of Jesuits and a very fast foundation of the Educational
Commission raise the problem of continuity. The Commission not only took over
the material things from the Jesuits but it also applied their teaching methods.
It was impossible to replace all the teachers-Jesuits in one stroke, therefore
some of them were still working in schools. A relevant example in this respect
is the Jesuit school in Kaunas.
The Kaunas Jesuit College was founded in 1648. In 1702 the status of the college
as a secondary school with a short course in philosophy was confirmed. The
fire interrupted the work of the school in 1732. After the fire, the schoolchildren
were taught rhetoric and poetics; philosophy was introduced in 1735, and moral
theology-in 1738 - 1739.
Twenty vice-rectors and four rectors directed the work of the College. More
than 130 teachers worked in the school in 1702 - 1773; there was a great change
in the teaching staff but the reasons for this change are unknown. It is impossible
to evaluate the work of the teachers because of the lack of sources, but the
fact is that a number of them, such as Jan Poszakowski, Franciszek Milwid,
Franciszek Paprocki, and, especially, Tomasz Źebrowski were well-known not
only in Kaunas but also all over Lithuania.
Not much is known about the library of the school either, even its location
is not known. Judging by the programs, it had to contain a lot of books by
antique authors, including works on rhetoric, the German language, and arithmetics.
After the abolition of the Order of Jesuits, one part of the library was transferred
to Vilnius University, whereas the other part remained in Kaunas.
The Educational Commission confirmed typical teaching programs for the district
and lower district schools in 1774. Kaunas College was reorganized into a
lower district school in 1782. There were three classes, and children had
to study two years in each class. In addition to the previously taught subjects,
some new and progressive subjects were introduced. The General Inspectors
controlled Kaunas School and insured that the lessons were conducted according
to the regulations of the Educational Commission.
For the first ten years, the majority of the teachers were ex-Jesuits, but
they were gradually replaced. Some of them were very famous in Kaunas, for
example, the architects Mikołaj Wieliczko and Jan Mattekier; the latter renovated
the Town Hall of Kaunas. In 1774 - 1794 there worked about 23 teachers: 4
vice-rectors, 6 preachers, and 13 teachers; only four teachers were not priests.
It looks like at that time the library and the school supplies were quite
modern.
During the period of 1782 - 1791, the number of children grew from 70 till
128. They used to be given silver and gold medals for good learning results,
and books were provided for poor but diligent children
The lower district school in Kaunas had inherited its valuable place in the
life of the town from the Jesuits. The school strengthened the relations with
the town not only by teaching children but also by establishing ties with
the church. In addition, some of the teachers participated in the public life
of Kaunas.
Remigijus Civinskas, Liudas Glemža
Features of Political Culture of Kaunas Magistracy at the end of 18th and
the beginning of 19th centuries
Abstract
During the second half of the 18th-the beginning of the 19th
centuries the town of Kaunas (as well as other towns of the Grand Duchy of
Lithuania) underwent changes in political, social and economic life. Social
reforms during the last years of the Polish - Lithuanian state were modified
by the Russian Imperial government. These changes influenced the life of the
elite of Kaunas and the magistracy of the town. The introduction of the reforms,
the changes in the government and economic order deepened conflicts between
social and political groups and caused a more radical attitude and behaviour
on the part of the town elite.
In the second half of the 18th century conflicts between the protestant and
catholic communities, that started in the 16th century, sharpened, and the
9th decade of the century witnessed the newly emerging political-economic
grounds of the conflicts. It is possible to single out two conflicting groups,
the group of the chief of Kaunas post and the Secretary of the king Henrik
Esen, on the one hand, and the group of the Kaunas vait Jozef Chrapicki, on
the other. The conflicting groups of the magistracy used to come into collision
during elections, and would undertake illegal actions in order to win the
position of the burgomaster. After the elections of 1786, 1802 and 1804 the
complaints of the opponents flooded the institutions of the Russian government.
The period under discussion also witnessed court processes held about the
facts of corruption of the magistracy officials, and they were most often
initiated by the leaders of the opponent group. The Governer General and other
officials of the Czar administration were aware of such cases, and it is possible
that such a situation speeded up, or maybe even predetermined, the introduction
of the elections to the Duma in Lithuanian towns. The accusations of financial
violations were increasing, the importance of personal interests was becoming
stronger, and this increased the self-willed attitudes of Kaunas officials.
Nijolė Lukšionytė - Tolvaišienė
The Estate of the Frykas in the Times of Change
Abstract
The construction works in a newly planned eastern part of
Kaunas, called Naujamiestis, started in the middle of the XIXth century. The
stead-type houses, i.e. one-storeyed buildings from brick or wood, were especially
popular. Houses of the type were usually built by noblemen who migrated to
the town and took up positions in official institutions, bringing with them
this individual family-house tradition. In the countryside such houses were
called small mansions or nobility houses. In the middle of the XIXth century
they were adapted to the town environment.
The article discusses one farmstead, the property of the architect Edmundas
Frykas, which was inherited by his son, also an architect, in the period between
the Wars. What survived is the main building of this small mansion (Būga street
No. 8), which was built around the year 1845, a house of the gate-keeper from
1921, and a few other buildings. The most valuable is the main house with
arched cellars, stone brick zocle and an archaic wooden construction of the
roof. Its fa?ade represents the Romantic classicist style. The house was built
on the ground terrace of the farmstead. Small plots of land were sold in the
upper terrace in the 3rd and 4th decade of the XXth century, and some brick
cottages were built there. The street, formed in 1937, was named after E.
Frykas. This small mansion is an interesting historical relic of the town,
but it is not properly examined and appraised.
Steamboats in the Fortress of Kaunas in 1914 - 1915
Abstract
The fortress of Kaunas was one of the strongest land fortresses of the Russian Empire at the end of the XIXth - the beginning of the XXth century. At the beginning of World War I, Kaunas passenger and merchant ships were passed over to the staff of the Kaunas fortress. The army coated two steamboats - the "Jaroslavna" and the "Venera"[Venus] - with armourplates and armed them. On the 13th of May, 1915, the steamboat "Jaroslavna" took part in the battle with the German army, and the "Venera" steamboat joined the battle soon after. With respect to individual missions, the participation of such steamboats in the defence of Kaunas fortress in 1915 often yielded positive results. In the Lithuanian military history this was the only case when armed steamboats took part in the battles on the Nemunas River.
Aistė Lazauskienė
First Elections to the Kaunas Council (1918)
Abstract
The article reviews the organization of the first democratic
elections to the Kaunas Council.
In November 1918 a Joint Committee of representatives of all nations and various
political organizations was formed, and it was supposed to replace the German
Soldatenrat. In order to organize the elections to the Kaunas Council, the
Committee started negotiations with the Germans. The Organizing Committee
not only prepared the regulations of the elections, but also took care of
other matters related to the city's economic life. The citizens of the town
initiated the elections on their own without informing the Lithuanian Government.
The latter had doubts about the Committee's loyalty to the Lithuanian National
Council and the Government, and a conflict between the Committee and R. Šliūpas,
the representative of the government, took place.
Though the Organizing Committee was formed from the representatives of different
national groups, there were no bigger conflicts noted. National and social
disagreement was felt in the pre-election meetings, but the elections, which
took place on the 18-19th of December, 1918, were well-run and democratic.
They were conducted according to the rules prepared by the Organizing Committee
and were general, equal, direct and proportional. The elected Council included
30 Poles, 22 Jews, 12 Lithuanians, 6 Germans and 1 Russian.
The Germans did not want to transfer their power to the newly elected City
Council-they supported the Workers' Council formed from the representatives
of the Bolsheviks. Most probably the fact that the Lithuanian Government moved
to Kaunas had determined the dissolving of the Workers' Council and the creation
of the necessary environment for the democratically elected Kaunas Council
to start its activities.
Saulius Pivoras
"A temporary capital"- a temporary statehood? Perils of the Lithuanian
statehood through the eyes of Swedes at the beginning of the 20th century
Abstract
The article describes the impressions that Swedish guests experienced in Kaunas, a provisional capital of Lithuania, in the period of 1915 - 1925. The author attempts to relate these impressions to a general attitude of the Swedish diplomacy and politicians with respect to the possibilities of the Lithuanians to maintain their newly acquired statehood. The Swedish attitudes were very much in favour of the Lithuanian statehood in spite of the serious weaknesses of the new state. The Swedes could observe some of these weaknesses in Kaunas as well. However, Swedish politicians had a very clear understanding of the fact that they could not take any direct responsibility for the future of the Baltic states and Finland. Especially disturbing for them were the attempts of Lithuania to begin flirting with the Soviet Russia.
Aušra Jurevičiūtė
Political Demonstrations of Kaunas Students during the Period Between the
two World Wars
Abstract
During the period between the two world wars Kaunas did not
experience much political upheaval which would openly express dissatisfaction
with the policy of the state authorities. Historiography on this theme is
very scanty and fragmentary. Two student demonstrations-one on the 21st of
November, 1926 and the other on the 10th of December, 1938-occurred during
this period. The organisers were students as well as political parties and
organisations representing the opposition. The first demonstration of the
two mentioned above did not have the purpose of overthrowing the government;
it simply expressed the dissatisfaction with the government's work, the Ministry
of Internal Affairs and the Ministry of Education in particular. However,
the demonstration of 1938 attempted to overthrow the government and the President.
The reason for such actions was the government's acceptance of the ultimatum
from Poland and giving away Klaipėda; such steps were considered a proof of
its total incapability to protect the most vital interests of Lithuania. At
the same time, the internal policy of the country was characterised by censorship,
violence and isolation of people who were thinking differently.
The student demonstration of 21 November, 1926 was the prelude to the December
17 coup. The demonstration in 1938 was the result of Poland's ultimatum and
was caused by the political behaviour of the government. Such political acts
of student disobedience were rare but very important. They show the political
maturity of students and their sincere anxiety about the future of Lithuania.
Asta Petraitytė
The diplomatic corps of foreign states in the cultural life of Kaunas in 1923
- 1940
Abstract
Kaunas was a provisional capital of Lithuania in 1918-1940.
Foreign embassies were located in the centre of the town and acted as representatives
of cultural and political life of their own countries. The embassies of France,
the USSR, Italy and Great Britain were especially noted for their cultural
work.
The French diplomats J. H. G. Padovani, R. Ristelhueber and G. F. C. Dulong
had very close ties with the Lithuanian-French Society. These diplomats were
honorary members of the Society; in addition, many other famous people belonged
to the Society, A. de Bastard, B. Biržiškienė, L. Bour, V. Daugirdaitė-Sruogienė,
S. Girdvainis, A. Giuntz, V. Gustainis, L. Karsavinas, A. Merkys, L. Prou,
M. Riomeris, R. Schmittlein, and R. Vincent among them. The diplomatic corps
and the members of the Lithuanian-French Society gave lectures and concerts
and organized exhibitions and balls.
The English diplomat T. H. Preston staged two ballet performances at the Musical
Theatre of Kaunas. The Embassy of the USSR organized exhibitions and reviews
of Soviet films; sometimes the Embassy gave private concerts and organized
film reviews for selected groups of society. No doubt, the work of foreign
embassies and cultural societies was very important for the history of Kaunas.
Heinrich Sliacher, the Customs Official of Kaunas (1496-1499, 1504)
Abstract
This article describes a unique case of protectionism in the
history of customs in the Great Duchy of Lithuania in the second half of the
XVth and in the beginning of the XVIth century. The customs official Sliacher,
a representative of the Duke, rented the building of Kaunas customs in 1496-1499
and 1504. During the specified period, he introduced an illegal innovation,
i.e., he imposed a double taxation on Danzing traders. It can be claimed that
this act was motivated by an attempt to defend the commercial interests of
Kaunas traders from the influence of the Kaunas office of Danzing, a Hanza
Union town.
The article is organized in 3 parts. First, the activity of Sliacher in the
Great Duchy of Lithuania and his connections with Kaunas are discussed. A
German by nationality, Sliacher was a citizen of Krakow and belonged to the
trader's fellowship of St. Virgin Mary Church in Krakow which represented
the local elite. The Vilnius mint dominated in his financial activity in 1489-1501.
In 1499-1500, Sliacher used the accumulated financial capital for crediting
the court of Alexander, the Great Duke of Lithuania. This was because of the
fact that Sliacher belonged to the surroundings of the Great Duke Alexander.
In addition, he invested money in the maintenance of the Kaunas customs office
and bought immovable property in Kaunas.
The second part of the description is devoted to the expansion of the norms
of the two aspects of the Right of Guests (ius emporii, Stapelkaufrecht and
ius stapulae, Stapelrecht, prawo składu) which Kaunas possessed until 1496.
With these Gästehandel regulations, Kaunas aimed at becoming the only mediator
in commerce between the guest-traders, on the one hand, and to diminish the
influence and the Kaunas office of Danzing in Kaunas trade, on the other.
The third part concentrates on the introduction of the double taxation for
Danzing traders in 1497 and demonstrates a close connection between the activities
of the Kaunas customs official Heinrich Sliacher and the interests of the
town of Kaunas.
Aušrinė Kulvietytė - Slavinskienė
The Creative Heritage of Tadas Daugirdas in Kaunas
Abstract
Tadas Daugirdas was one of the most famous personalities in
Kaunas at the beginning of the XXth century. While in Kaunas, his main occupation
was that of a professional painter. However, his interests were much wider:
he worked as an archaeologist, as an ethnographer, he took care of architectural
monuments and wrote articles on the work he was doing. His interests ranged
from staging amateur plays, making sketches for decorations and costumes,
engaging into stained glass and interior projects to reconstructing Lithuanian
heraldry. Since 1909 and until the end of his life he was the director of
the Kaunas City museum. This study is a survey of the creative heritage of
T. Daugirdas in Kaunas.
From this period, only one picture by T. Daugirdas ("The Town Hall of
Kaunas") is known, but it is obvious that he had painted more. This picture,
as well as his earlier paintings, show the influence of Polish naturalism
and the so-called "mood" landscapes. In 1908 and 1911 the painter
took part in the exhibitions organized by the Lithuanian Society of Fine Arts.
During the German occupation in 1917 he also participated in an exhibition
as a landscape-painter. In 1910-1911 T. Daugirdas designed three stained glasses
where he applied the forms of Lithuanian folk art. A similar stylistics characterizes
his other works. In the décor of a large salon of Maironis house he combined
the ornaments of folk art and Secession. It was the first décor of this style
in Lithuania. T. Daugirdas took part in the activities of the theatrical society
"Daina". He wrote and staged plays, created decorations and costume
sketches for the drama "Mirga".
The cultural and creative activities of T. Daugirdas are very significant.
At the beginning of the XXth century he took part in the Lithuanian national
movement. He stressed Lithuanian national singularity, and this new trend
influenced all the fields that T. Daugirdas was working in. The creative work
of T. Daugirdas is an example of nationally engaged art which predominated
at the beginning of the XXth century in Lithuania.
Alvydas Surblys
Augustinas Janulaitis -a book collector and a personality of diverse interests
Abstract
Augustinas Janulaitis, born on the 31st of March, 1878 in
Malavėnai, had lived in various places because of his research interests and
political reasons. However, the most important years of his life had been
spent in Kaunas. It is here that he matured as a scholar, became an authority
in law and one of the most productive historians. At present, Kaunas Public
Library houses a large and valuable personal library of A. Janulaitis, which
is part of its gold stock.
The process of collecting a personal library had a big influence on the formation
of A. Janulaitis' personality and his productivity as a scholar. He collected
books, manuscripts and periodical publications, and his collection exhibits
all features of a valuable collection. It consists of law and history books,
dissertations and their summaries, cuttings from periodical publications,
old, rare and even unique editions, books acquired from various other collections
and autographed books. The collection contains 13,685 publications and 14,763
titles of books and articles. Purchased in antique shops of foreign countries,
these publications are now available to a wide audience and is one of the
most frequently borrowed items at the Section of Old and Rare Editions of
Kaunas Public Library.
Algimantas Miškinis
Agricultural and Industrial Exhibitions in Kaunas in 1921 - 1936 and Characteristic
Features of their Architectural Design
Abstract
Over the period of 1921 - 1936, nine state-level agricultural
and industrial exhibitions were held in Kaunas. The exhibition of 1921 (pics.
1-3) took place in the centre of the town, in Vienybės Square, in the area
close to the War Museum.
Since 1922 exhibitions had been held in Žaliakalnis, in the oak-grove, in
the area separated from the main massif by K.Petrauskas and Parodos streets.
In 1922, an area of 6,5 hectares with 3 zones for the display of common, agricultural
and industrial exhibits was provided with a very rational system of roads
designed according to the scheme of the engineer F.Vizbaras (pic. 4). The
main objects, such as gates (pics. 13 - 14), the central and agricultural
pavilions (pics. 15-17, 24-27) and other buildings were built according to
the projects of professor Songaila. Following the original plan, the exhibition
had undergone expansion until 1928. In 1930 it was completely reconstructed
by the engineer-architect K.Reisonas (pic. 8) and then in 1936 slightly changed
again (pic. 12). In addition, the construction of private pavilions and temporary
exhibition buildings were carried out. Wooden houses with plank roofs, imitating
rural architecture, predominated in the territory. In the architecture of
separate pavilions the forms and elements of wooden villas of a health-resort-
and church-type, as well as other traditional architectural forms, were modified.
Many buildings had spires of various forms (pics. 18-23), and this feature
added to their distinct look. In some of them the dominating element was a
roof (pics. 26-27). Side by side with professionally structured buildings,
there stood some quite primitive ones. Several of them resemble mechanically
transferred pieces from foreign countries (pics. 14, 30-32), while others
look quite fanciful (pic.36). It can be stated then that in the architecture
of the 4th decade new forms appeared (pics. 9-10, 38).
The last exhibition was held in 1936. Most of its buildings were destroyed
before World War II. Two brick buildings, the Press Centre and the Post Office
with a watchman's flat (pic. 11) and Vytautas Magnus pavilion built in 1930
were destroyed during the Soviet times.
Simonas Strelcovas
The changes of Kaunas district boundary in the middle of XVI and the end of
XVIII century
Abstract
In the middle of the 16th century on the territory of the
Grand Duchy of Lithuania an administrative-territorial reform was carried
out. The whole state was divided into 'vaivadijos', and these units were then
divided into smaller administrative districts, called 'pavietas'. This reform
was the first to define precisely and to separate the territory boundaries
of pavietai and vaivadijos. Unfortunately, when a piece of land was ascribed
to one or another pavietas, this was not marked on the maps.
After the Commonwealth of Poland and Lithuania in 1569 and the first division
of the Republic in 1772, the boundaries of the Grand Duchy were changed. In
the first case the Grand Duchy lost southern territories, in the second it
lost the vaivadijos of Vitebskas and Mstislaulis. The northern part of Polockas
vaivadija and the eastern part of Minskas vaivadija were annexed by the Russian
Empire. That is why the existing state of distribution did not satisfy the
requirements of reality any more.
In the autumn of 1791 a new territorial distribution statute of the Republic
was adopted by the Parliament. From the 23 pavietai that existed in the Grand
Duchy new 34 pavietai were formed. The reform touched the pavietas of Kaunas
as well: from its territory an additional pavietas of Prienai was formed.
Later, the parishes of Virbalis and Naumiestis, which previously belonged
to the Duchy of Samogitia, were attached, and this changed the boundaries
of Samogitia and Trakai vaivadija. We have to note that this reform, as well
as many others that were adopted by the Seym, was short-lived.
Gediminas Lesmaitis
The Problems of the Field in Kaunas District in the Second Half of the XVIth
Century
Abstract
Until the XVIIIth century the word field (laukas) in Lithuanian
meant the smallest structure of a territory.
This article discusses two issues. While carrying out the present investigation,
83 fields (laukas, ????) were found. However, we should have in mind that
this list is far from being exact. It was established that the term field
in the second half of the XVIth century was employed not only by peasants,
but also by the gentry. The crystallisation of the gentry's field is not reflected
in the books of Kaunas district (pavietas, powiat). Due to the lack of sources,
the problem of the relation between the field and other territorial structures
is not analysed. In view of this, the goals for further research can be identified
as follows:
1. The problem of the dependency of the development of the territorial structures
on the economic development of the region. Attention should be drawn to the
fact that the density of the fields varies in different regions of Kaunas
district. To be more exact, only a few fields are found in the territory between
the Nemunas and the Neris. Such a state could have been caused by a quicker
development of southern Lithuania.
2. The problem of a bigger territorial structure turning into a field. It
was noticed that some territorial structures that were mentioned as small
districts (valsčius, wlośc) in the XIVth century, in the sources of the 2nd
half of the XVIth century already figure as fields.
3. The problem of relations between a field and kin. The files of the books
of the Kaunas district court and the census of the Army of Kaunas district
reveal close ties betwen a field and kin, which are not so distinct in other
districts. An assumption is raised that the formation of new kin could influence
the formation of the field.
Marius Sirutavičius
Ishmara in Kaunas in the second half of the XVIth and the beginning of the
XVIIth century
Abstract
The choice of the ishmara law as an object for research uncloses
a fragment of the history of Kaunas during the XVIth and XVIIth centuries,
promotes the investigation of the city life of the period and falls within
a wider area of the topics related to the history of LDK towns. According
to this law (the source texts term it iure caducum), if all legitimate devisees
of a private property were dead, the property was devolved upon the state.
In that case it was divided among the distinguished noblemen by the Grand
Duke. Therefore, this research might contribute to the investigation of the
processes by which noblemen penetrated into municipalities and to uncover
one of the possible ways how landlords were able to obtain property in the
cities. Although in the period under consideration in Kaunas ishmara was not
a frequent phenomenon, the topic deals with the history of the property relations
of the inhabitants of the city and is relevant to the problem of the penetration
of noblemen into the cities.
The sources of the investigation are the acts of the surrender of property
(Lithuanian Metrics) and judicial decisions related to the segmentation of
property and regulated by the iure caducum. Even though few in number, these
documents enable us to investigate diverse facts of the surrender of the property,
intentions of the surrender, to review the nomenclature of the segmented property
and the role of the city institutions in this process, and to analyse property
conflicts.
The acts of the surrender of the property demonstrate that in most cases the
new owners of the property are the noblemen who gained it as a reward for
some services. However, there were exceptions to the rule. For instance, in
1625 the property was given to the Bernardines as help; another case is townsmen.
The property would be houses and sites or gardens or some other movable or
immovable property.
The next stage in dealing with this kind of property was related to the juridical
procedures of confirming the obtained property. The process was commonly performed
by the Kaunas magistrate. However, there were instances when the inheritors
would appear and protest the installation procedures, thus contesting the
iure caducum and taking the case to court. Such cases show that property could
sometimes be segmented without a conviction of an actual existence of ishmara.
With respect to jurisdiction, these conflicts were not the only ones that
would arise between the city and the new owners. The privilege allowed the
new owners to deal with the property as they wish, and yet the property was
often supposed to fall under the jurisdiction of the city law. This sort of
ambiguity provoked clashes between the city and noblemen law; noblemen, as
new owners, would naturally follow the law of the estate. In view of these
facts, one can interpret the transfer of the property to noblemen as a way
of enabling them to penetrate into the city. Such a process contributed to
the emergence of foreign bodies in Kaunas, i.e. jurzdika of noblemen, which
allowed them not to obey the city law.
Ilona Bučinskytė
The foundation of the independent Lithuanian Observances** province and the
townspeople of Kaunas at the beginning of the XVIth century
Abstract
Observances were invited to settle down in the Grand Duchy
of Lithuania by the Grand Duke Kazimieras. They took charge of two activity
spheres: taking care of Lithuanian neophytes, on the one hand, and the missionary
activities in the eastern part of the state, mostly inhabited by the Russian
people, on the other.
The Observances of the Kaunas convent were in charge of the first activity
sphere. They were influential and popular, and the society of the Grand Duchy
of Lithuania regarded the Observances with favour. The Kaunas Convent of Observances
was founded in 1471 on the land donated by the Lithuanian nobleman Stanislaus
Sandziwoiewicz. Other grand dukes of Lithuania also made some presents. The
Observances of Kaunas were especially favoured by the German population.
The Observances came to Lithuania from Poland. The Polish Observances took
care of the foundation of convents and were superior authorities of the convents
of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. However, the Lithuanian Observances were
dissatisfied with the situation and their dissatisfaction was openly expressed
in 1519, when the Kaunas convent disobeyed their direct authority, the custody
of the Vilnius convent. They were active in the process of foundation of the
independent province of Lithuanian Observances, especially in the years 1519
- 1528.
The case when the treasures of the Kaunas convent were taken away was a good
reason for the Observances of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to initiate separation
from the Polish Observances province. The Observances of Lithuania paid no
attention to the regulation of the Franciscan Order, or to the opposition
of their direct authorities and managed to declare the independent Lithuanian
province of the Observances.
Rasa Varsackytė
Kaunas dwellers during the Crisis of the 1650's
Abstract
Kaunas was captured by Russians on August 18, 1655. In September
1655 the city was taken by Swedes for several days. Shortly after, however,
it was recaptured by the Russians.
The situation that the Kaunas dwellers found themselves in is not easy to
reveal due to the fact that many sources had been lost. Thus, the relevant
generalisations are not thorough; moreover, a lot of questions remain unanswered.
Nevertheless, it has been established that the dwellers of Kaunas fled to
the Duchy of Prussia, others retreated to Kėdainiai. Part of the inhabitants
of Kaunas decided to collaborate with the enemies. The collaboration with
Swedes, according to the official political stand of the State, was treated
as treason and Kaunas dwellers accused of that should have been punished.
However, some dwellers of the town were rewarded for their loyalty to the
King and the Republic. On December 26, 1661 the Lithuanian Army liberated
Kaunas.
Kristina Statkutė
The Foundation of the Kaunas police and their activity in the first quarter
of the XIXth century
Abstract
One of the administrative novelties in Lithuania at the beginning
of the 19th century was the establishment of "the omnipotent Russian
police" in Lithuanian towns. Regrettably, Lithuanian historiography has
not investigated the process of the formation and the activities of the urban
executive police as a town supervising institution.
The formation of the Russian police apparatus in Lithuania was mostly affected
by the Laws of Provinces of November 7, 1775 and the Police Law of 1782.
The establishment of the urban executive police in Kaunas and other Lithuanian
towns was carried out in several stages. There was a period when the functions
of the police were performed by the army. Then followed the establishment
of police offices that were strictly subjected to the superior institutions.
The police, as the only town supervising institution, had to perform a number
of other functions, such as reading and implementing decrees of the tsar,
or maintaining public law and order.
The urban executive police at the beginning of the 19th century was a new
phenomenon in the towns of Lithuania which, nevertheless, considerably limited
the rights and duties of their residents. However, the urban executive police
was not only an instrument of the state control over the townspeople, but
it was also an institution where human passions and foibles prospered.
Algė Jankevičienė
The Original Architecture of St. Peter's Church in Kaunas and its Alterations
in the Years of M. Valančius Bishopry
Abstract
St. Peter's church in Kaunas is one of the oldest churches
in Lithuania. In written records it was first mentioned in 1413. The church
was not built at one stroke. The earliest part of it is the bottom of the
rectangular nave walls of 51.4 metres in length and 33.75 metres wide. The
presbitery with a three-wall apsis and a two-storeyed sacristy were built
at the end of the XVth century. Gothic churches of a similar type are also
found in other countries of central and north-eastern Europe.
The construction of St. Peter's Church was taken up again in 1624: the pillars
and two towers were built and the central nave was raised. When M.Valančius
came to this church as a bishop in 1864, the exterior of the monumental building
was not plastered, the fa?ades were laconic and flat, and only the presbitery
and the sacristy was noted for their graceful proportions and forms. In the
rich Baroque interior many Gothic relicts, such as netlike vaults in the presbitery
and crystalline arches in the sacristy and the emporium remained. On M.Valančius'
initiative small repair work was done.
Important reconstruction work was carried out in 1881 - 1895, when the bishop
was already dead and when the church government was officially preparing to
grant it the status of a cathedral. The interior was decorated with the Neo-Baroque
modelling and painting, and the organs, the place for a choir, and St. Sacrament
chapel in the Neo-Gothic style were added.